How do you choose between SQL and NoSQL databases?

Choose SQL (PostgreSQL, MySQL) for structured data requiring ACID transactions, complex JOINs, and strict schema enforcement. Choose NoSQL (MongoDB, DynamoDB, Cassandra) for flexible schemas, massive horizontal scale, high write throughput, and eventual consistency workloads.

When should you choose Vertical Scaling vs Horizontal Scaling?

Start with vertical scaling (adding CPU/RAM to one server) for simplicity. Transition to horizontal scaling (adding more servers) when hardware limits are reached, cost curves become prohibitive, or high availability is required. Horizontal scaling introduces distributed system complexity.

What is the difference between Sharding, Partitioning, and Indexing?

Indexing speeds up read queries within a single table using B-Tree or Hash structures. Partitioning splits a single table into logical physical chunks within one database instance. Sharding distributes rows across multiple distinct database servers using a shard key, scaling write throughput and storage.

How do you scale WebSockets to millions of concurrent connections?

Increase Linux file descriptor limits, use Layer 4 load balancing with sticky sessions, and implement a Redis Pub/Sub backplane so any WebSocket server can relay messages to clients connected to other servers. Pattern: Client → HAProxy → WS Servers ↔ Redis Pub/Sub.

What is the difference between LSI and GSI in DynamoDB?

A Local Secondary Index (LSI) shares the same partition key as the base table but uses a different sort key. It is limited to 10GB per item collection and supports strong consistency. A Global Secondary Index (GSI) uses a completely different partition key, spans all partitions, supports only eventual consistency, and has its own dedicated throughput capacity.

Which database should I use for transactions, user profiles, logs, and analytics?

Use PostgreSQL for financial transactions (ACID compliance). Use MongoDB for user profiles (flexible JSON). Use Cassandra for logs and high-throughput writes (LSM tree). Use Apache Druid for real-time analytics (columnar storage). Use Elasticsearch for search and catalog (inverted index). Use Redis for sessions and caching (in-memory).

How does Consistent Hashing work?

Consistent hashing maps both servers and keys onto a circular ring. A key routes clockwise to the nearest server. When a node is added or removed, only 1/N keys need to migrate (vs nearly 100% in modulo hashing). Virtual nodes (100-200 per server) ensure even distribution and prevent hotspots.

How do you design a distributed rate limiter?

Use a Token Bucket algorithm for burst-friendly limiting. For distributed enforcement across multiple API gateway instances, use Redis with Lua scripts to atomically evaluate and increment counters, preventing race conditions (dirty reads) where concurrent requests could bypass the limit.

How do CDNs leverage Edge Caching, Anycast Routing, and Dynamic Site Acceleration? — System Design Interview Answer & Trade-offs

Architectural Breakdown & AnalysisFAANG Aligned

Content Delivery Networks (Cloudflare, Fastly, AWS CloudFront) move content closer to global end users.

1. Anycast Routing

Multiple CDN edge servers across the globe share the exact same IP address. BGP routing automatically sends client TCP packets to the geographically closest POP server.

2. Edge Caching Mechanics

Static Caching: Edge POPs cache images, JS/CSS bundles, and video segments using Cache-Control: public, max-age=31536000.
Dynamic Acceleration: For un-cacheable APIs, CDNs maintain persistent warmed TCP/TLS connections to origin servers, bypassing slow BGP handshakes.

3. Origin Shielding

Inserts a secondary caching tier between edge POPs and origin DBs, protecting backends during global cache purges.

NOTE — CDN Invalidation

Prefer cache-busting asset file hashes (main.a8f9c1.js) over manual CDN cache purge commands for instant deployment updates.

Key Architectural Comparison

CDN Strategy	Caching Location	Content Type	Latency Reduction Mechanism
Edge Caching	Point of Presence (PoP) nearest to user.	Static assets (Images, JS, CSS, MP4).	Eliminates origin server roundtrips ($<15\text{ms}$).
Dynamic Site Acceleration	Intermediate routing nodes.	Dynamic API payloads.	TCP route optimization, connection reuse, pre-warmed TLS.
Origin Shield	Centralized caching tier in front of origin.	Cache misses from edge PoPs.	Prevents thundering herds from collapsing origin servers.

How do CDNs leverage Edge Caching, Anycast Routing, and Dynamic Site Acceleration?

1. Anycast Routing

2. Edge Caching Mechanics

3. Origin Shielding

Key Architectural Comparison

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